Article number: - IACAN009
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DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO PT. DEENDAYAL UPADHYAYA INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Introduction
Rock Art
Art represents the human endeavor to give visibility to one’s beliefs. As an ancient form of human expression, rock art is the major surviving record of the non-material aspect of prehistoric and protohistoric cultures. The term rock art is generally used to denote paintings, petroglyphs, handprints, and engravings made on rock surfaces in or outside a rock shelter or a cave. The ancient animals, tools, and human activities depicted often help shed light on daily life in the distant past, though the images are frequently symbolic. Sometimes a single site may have art that dates from several centuries.
Interest in rock art among scientists grew, after the discovery of the rock art of Altamira in Spain in the year 1879, when Don Marcelino de Santuola with his young daughter, Maria, visited the cave. Maria due to her small size could manage to get through a narrow crevice into this cave and discovered the painting of bison. The finding of the cave excited many scholars of Prehistory, but unfortunately, no actions were taken until the year 1895, when similar paintings were found in France.
Significance of Rock Art
Rock art has great significance to humanity generally. Its beauty, its symbolism, and rich narrative mean that it is widely appreciated and treasured internationally, regionally, and locally. Its continued existence is important to help global communities recognize and learn about the diverse cultural traditions, their ancient origins, and relationships to the landscapes they have inhabited.
It can be easy to identify rock art images of humans, animals, or natural objects such as the sun. Geometric and abstract images are also common in rock art. What these images were meant to depict and what they were made are questions that archaeologists and anthropologists are trying to find an answer to, by trying to study how the images were made, where they are located, which images occur together, and by trying to identify which group produced them. Sometimes we can trace a relationship between geometric or abstract designs and other more naturalistic motifs that are easier to identify, but many rock art images remain enigmatic and are difficult to interpret.
Rock Art in India
It is significant to note, at this juncture, that almost 12 years before the finding of Altamira, in 1867-68, Archibald Carllelye of the Archaeological Survey of India recorded rock paintings in the Mirzapur district. Carllelye wrote that ‘some of these paintings appeared to illustrate in a very stiff and archaic manner scene from the life of the ancient stone chippers; others represent animals or hunts of animals by men with bow and arrows, spear and hatchet’. Although it was discovered early on, no work was done on rock art. After this, John Cockburn became the first pioneer who first discovered and published a note on the cave paintings of the Kaimur range.
The earliest rock art studies were initiated at Calcutta under the auspicious of The Asiatic Society of Bengal. In 1870, at a meeting of The Asiatic Society of Bengal, H. Rivett Carnac, an officer of the colonial British administration, reported his discovery of rocks with a series of cup marks at barrows near Junapani, a hamlet about eight km west of Nagpur in the then Central provinces (contemporarily in the state of Maharashtra).
Since then, many rock art sites have been discovered and have been published. In India, one famous rock art site is Bhimbhetka, located in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. It is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Motive Behind the Rock Art
Most of the theories are related to the European Upper Paleolithic Art. However, these theories can also be considered for Indian rock art. After over a century of discussion about the 'meaning' of rock art, no complete scholarship consensus exists, and several explanations have been proposed to account for the proliferation of this prehistoric art. What follows is a summary of some of the explanations that have been put forward to account for the meaning of European Upper Paleolithic rock art.
1. Art for Art’s Sake
Rock Art was made for decorating the living spaces of the people so it would be foolish to see any symbolic meanings in them. This term was coined by Edouard Lartet and Christy in 1864. It is also known as ‘art pour l 'art.
2. Totemism
Primarily propagated by anthropologists Sir Edward Burnett Tylor and Salomon Reinach. According to them, a correlation existed between human groups and animals or plants, therefore, rock art motifs are primarily a depiction of artifacts or symbols that are associated or used by a clan’s totem which can either be their ancestor or an animal or plant
3. Sympathetic Magic
Rock art was done to ensure success in a hunt or to effectively challenge those animals that were dangerous.
4. Shamanism and Neuropsychological
The model was proposed by David LewisWilliams and colleagues. This theory was adopted because ethnographic pieces of evidence from communities like San Bushmen of South Africa who still make rock art have associated the making of their rock art as part of shamanistic practices and rituals.
5. Religious
In the Indian context, according to V.S. Wakankar, the earlier paintings of large animals have a religious association.
6. Boundary Markers
Some scholars have claimed that rock art was produced as boundary markers by different communities when climatic conditions increased the competition for territory between Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer communities. Hatfield and Pittman note that this approach is not consistent with the stylistic unity displayed by some rock art traditions.
Types of Rock Art
There are 2 types of rock art. They are -
1. Pictographs
Pictography is the creation of monochrome, bichrome, or polychrome images through the application of pigments, like carbon, manganese, and various oxides. As pictographs are far less weather-resistant than engravings, most surviving pictography is in the form of underground cave paintings or outdoor markings under an overhanging rock. Prehistoric artists began by painting with their fingers. Later, they used lumpy pigment crayons or brushes constructed from animal hair or vegetable fiber. These cave paintings throughout the world include numerous symbols, ideograms, anthropomorphs, and zoomorphs. Regarding the pictographs, it is worth remembering that they became the basis of the cuneiform and hieroglyphic writing in different countries.
a. Hand Stencil-
The hand was placed on the rock surface and paint pigment was then blown through a hollow tube (bone or reed) in a diffuse cloud over it, leaving a silhouette image of the hand on the rock. Alternatively, the hand might have been stenciled simply by spitting the pigment directly onto it from
the mouth, or even by painting around it with a pad/brush dipped in pigment. The hand silhouettes are known as "negative hand stencils". Stencils in Australian rock art is made by mixing dry pigments (ochre, clay, charcoal) with
water and/or saliva in the mouth and spitting the mixture into the surface of the rock to create a negative image or outline of an object or body part. The most common stencil in Australian rock art is the hand stencil. Lefthand stencils are more common in Stone Age art than right-hand images, because a right-handed person typically uses his stronger right hand to hold the pigment tube.
b. Hand Prints
The hands were painted (typically with red, white, or black pigment) and then applied to the rock surface, creating a crude handprint. Prints are usually referred to as "positive handprints". Hand paintings might appear anywhere in a cave. They might be on their own or clustered in varying groups of left and right hands. In simple terms, the team found that handprints or hand stencils were sometimes made in highly uncomfortable positions, where far more convenient options existed. If handprints are common the world over, in India, and particularly in the region under study, age-old traditions of handprint making are still alive in many places. In certain parts of the State, auspicious handprints are made on both sides of the door or on grain vats. But what of their meaning?
Was this the signature of the artist, confirming both his or her work as well as his or her self-awareness? Was it the artist, or shaman, touching the rock surface to acknowledge and therefore enter the spirit world, known as the 'sealing' ritual? Where there is a spiral incorporated into the motif, as at La Cienega and Three Rivers, for example, they may be depictions of healing energy that channels through the hands - the ancient practice of Reiki. A site such as Silapuri, in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India, discovered by Dr. Mashkoor Ahmad Quadri, also has the presence of handprints.
2. Petroglyphs
The Greek words Petros meaning "stone" and Glyphein meaning "to carve" (it was originally coined in French as pétroglyphe). Petroglyphs are generally made by removing the surface
of the rock, by carving, scratching, drilling, or sculpting. The markings can be dyed or painted, or enhanced through polishing. Petroglyphs have been discovered all over the populated world. Some of these images have a special cultural and/or religious significance for the societies that created them. Some surfaces on which rock art appears are also evidence of preliminary evidence.
i. Grooved Petroglyphs-
These are motifs that are made by first pecking the surface to create a break and then by abrasion to create smooth grooves that are rounded on the bottom.
ii. Incised Petroglyphs-
Incised Petroglyphs often include motifs that have been incised or scratched into the rock surface with a sharp stone tool resulting in a thin line that is V-shaped in profile.
iii. Cupules-
Cupule stones are defined as horizontal, inclined, and vertical rock surfaces with groupings of roughly hemispherical features. Cupules are usually small (<20 cm in diameter), numerous, and may be accompanied by other
marks. Cupules can be distributed in lines, arcs, circles, grids, or seemingly randomly. They may be densely or scantily distributed but typically not isolated. In contrast to features such as bedrock mortars, cupules do not exhibit evidence for use in grinding (e.g., residues, refurbishment of grinding surfaces, associated hand stones, or placement near key resource areas). Cupules may be associated with linear grooves (U-shaped in crosssection) and closely spaced parallel scratches (deeper and more V-shaped in crosssection).
iv. Geoglyphs-
Geoglyphs are handmade features created on the surface of the earth. These have been made by removing or clearing sand or stones or sometimes adding stones. This creates a contrast between the figure and the ground, enhancing visibility. Geoglyphs, nevertheless, also occur in a range of different
forms worldwide. Despite the similarities that can be found between regions, it is clear that geoglyphs have independent origins and development
in time and space. The most famous geoglyphs are in Nazca, Perú. Recently, some geoglyphs have been found in the Thar Desert of India. The ones found in the
Indian deserts are the largest discovered worldwide and for the first time in the Indian subcontinent. Researchers said that these drawings are also unique as regards their enigmatic signs.
Researchers also include other types of work under the term rock art-
i. Lichenoglyphs-
Created by scratching the surface of a rock covered in lichen to create, by contrast, a more or less complex motif.
ii. Sgraffito-
Motifs are produced on the surface of rock by removing the top layer to reveal the contrasting layer underneath. These motifs are typically in lighter hues, as the rock surface acquires a darker patina over time.
iii. Petroforms-
Rocks are laid out in lines or circles on the ground or piled on top of each other – such as an Inuit inukshuk – to form a figure. Petroforms have several purposes: practical or related to the cosmology of the groups who created them.
Previous Work
In the case of the site of Khanpur, previous work regarding rock shelter has not been done, but the presence of rock shelter has been mentioned by S. K. Pandey. Other work regarding the temple architecture in this region has been done. In the case of the site of Naryauli, we find the works of M. G. Dixit, the then Head of the Department of Dr. Hari Singh Gour University and the work of S. K. Pandey. The site of Naryauli has also been mentioned in the ‘Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers of Sagar’, 1967. In the book ‘Sagar Through the Ages’, 1964, S. K. Bajpai has also mentioned the site of Naryauli and its rock paintings. S. K. Bajpai in his article ‘Archaic Rock Paintings of Sagar District’ also mentions the sites of Naryauli and Khanpur. In the article, he describes the different shelters of both these sites. Other than that, he also mentions the different rock art sites present in the Sagar district.
Aims and Objectives
The rock shelters of Khanpur and Naryauli have art ranging from many periods. The aims of this dissertation were
1. Detailed Documentation of the sites
2. Comparison of the sites and
3. Typology on both the rock art sites regarding the frequency of the rock art in the shelters and their periods.
Hypothesis
By doing this dissertation I wanted to prove the similarities and differences between these sites based on the art present in these rock shelters. Methodology
Methodology
The data regarding the rock art sites, studied in this dissertation, are not only primary but also secondary. A field survey of the rock art is very important, for until the survey is done, understanding of the geological condition cannot be understood. While doing a field survey we must make sure to document the rock art properly and its locations.
After the survey of the sites, it is important to collect as much data as possible, which will help us to identify the area of study. After the identification, we must start a further study which will help us in our research. An analysis needs to be done after the collection of material, which will then help us in writing our conclusion. While researching rock art, a systematic form of methodology should always be present. The methodology shown above helps not only in the research about rock art but also helps us understand our topic for research well.
GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITION
“All art, from the paintings on the walls of cave dwellers to art created today, is autobiographical because it comes from the secret place in the soul where imagination resides.” -Gloria Vanderbilt
The sites of Khanpur and Naryauli are in the state of Madhya Pradesh in the Tehsil Sagar. Sagar district is located in the north-central part of the state of Madhya. The district extends between the latitude of 23º 10’ N and 24º 27’ N, the longitude of 78º 04’ E and 79º 21’E. Both sites are formed of Vindhyan sandstone and are in the northwest of Sagar city. These are sites that have rock art from Mesolithic- Historical periods. These are the parts that are full of Vindhyan hills. Other than rock art, the remains of microliths are also found in the sites.
Drainage
There are five main drainages of this district from west to east- Bina, Dhasan, Bewas, Sonar, and Bamner. The site of Naryauli lies in the Dhasan basin. Dhasan emerges from the south of the district and flows initially in the south but later on, it flows towards the north. It also forms a boundary with the Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh. There is also a presence of a small stream near the site of Khanpur but, that stream is mostly made up of waste of the city. At present, to support the water requirement of the city and agriculture, a plan of a dam has been put forward to be made near this site. Soon, this area will be submerged. Near the sites are the small villages of the same name. Since these villages lie in the valleys, it gets filled up with a lot of rainwater. Therefore, the site of Khanpur has become the ideal place for the dam project.
The rainwater helps people living in these areas for their agriculture. Throughout the years, many Hydrogeological studies by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) have taken place in the district of Sagar. They are
1. CGWB (Indo-British) Betwa Project- 1976-81
2. Normal Exploratory Drilling Program- 1992-93
3. Re-appraisal Hydrogeological Surveys- 1997-98
In 3D 2.2 the topographical view of the rock art sites and their surrounding area can be seen. Near the city of Naryauli, a river can be seen. This is the Dhasan river near which the city lies. Other than this river many small lakes provide water in this region of Sagar tehsil. The biggest lake of this tehsil is the Banjara Lake, which lies at the center of the main city of Sagar, around which the whole city settled. The drainage pattern is of dendritic type. In a few places especially around Sagar town and near Khimlasa and Jaisinagar, a radial drainage pattern is also observed.
Rainfall and Climate
The climate of the Sagar district can be classified mainly into three seasons. The Winter season starts from the middle of November to the end of February. March to May constitute the summer season and the monsoon season starts from the second week of June to the end of September. There are six rain gauge stations in the Sagar district. Maximum rainfall occurs along the southwestern boundary of the district and decreases towards the north and slightly towards the east. The normal annual rainfall of the district is 1197.6 mm. About 90% of the annual rainfall takes place during the southwest monsoon period i.e., June to September only 5.5% of annual rainfall takes place during the winter months and about 4.5% of rainfall occurs during the summer months. During the winter season, January is the coldest month with the temperature falling as low as 11.6º C and max up to 24.5º C. During the month of May, the temperature goes up to 40.7º C (max.).
Special Weather Phenomena
Heavy rain and strong winds are caused by the depressions originating in the Bay of Bengal during the monsoon months and occasionally in association with post-monsoon storms and depressions of October. Thunderstorms occur throughout the year but are more common in the summer and monsoon months. The thunderstorms of the winter and pre-monsoon months are at times accompanied by hail. Fog may occur occasionally during the winter season.
Water Availability
The main source of water supply is the wells. The compact Vindhyan formation and the Deccan Trap rocks have little water-bearing capacity. There is an acute shortage of water during the summer months. It is reported that open wells have a depth of 8-20 ft. Only two wells having a depth of 56 and 83 ft. have been reported.
Soil
The major part of the Sagar district is covered by black cotton soil. However, clay loam soils occur in the northern parts of Banda block, north of Malthone, west of Sagar town, Kesli and Deori blocks.
Geology
A geological survey of the district was first undertaken by W. L. Wilson in 1867. Although he could not publish his work, his original maps can be found in the Geological Survey of India in Calcutta. Subsequently, in 1869, F. R. Mallet published a memoir, titled ‘On the Vindhyan series, as exhibited in the North-Western and Central Provinces of India’. Though not much information regarding the Sagar district is given, the accompanying map in the memoir gives a piece of information about the rock formation in the district. Thereafter, no record of any geological work being done here is present. But recently, Dr. Harisingh Gour University has taken up the investigation of the geology of the country around Sagar and the Geological Survey of India have taken up the re-survey of the geology of the district per modern lines. As known, the sites of Khanpur and Naryauli both lie towards the northwest of the main city of Sagar. Both have the same form of Vindhyan sandstone. The Vindhyan sandstones and shales show ripple marks, current bedding, and other characters pointing to shallow-water and sub-aerial deposition. In the Vindhyan sandstones, primary porosity varies from negligible to as high as 30% depending on the degree of compaction. The storage and movement of groundwater in these formations is controlled mainly by the secondary porosity and permeability created due to weathering jointing and fractured. A complete hydrogeological formation of the district can be seen in Map 2.3. Deccan Traps are the most important formations in the district due to their large aerial extent. The weathered jointed, fractured and vesicular units of basalts form moderately potential aquifers. The zeolitic basalt in weathered form also makes a good aquifer. The red bole bed, which is predominantly clay, is non-productive and acts as a confining layer also.
Mineral Wealth
The district is not much endowed with mineral wealth. However, it has abundant construction materials and several occurrences of limestones that are used in the manufacture of lime. The Vindhyan sandstones are quarried for building purposes and at Atta, north of Malthone, sandstones are split into plant-like sheets.
Flora
The forest of the Sagar district belongs to the ‘Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous’ according to Champion’s classification, since, the average annual rainfall in the district is between 40-50 inches. A large portion of the district is covered with the Deccan Trap. On the Trap, the climax vegetation under the existing climate is pure teak forest. The sandstones give rise to sandy loams which support a mixed forest. Teak appears as the predominant species on the Trap Hills, especially in Sagar and Rehli Tehsil, its occurrence is more on the flat tops than on the slopes. The descent of teak can be traced by the older trees and a larger proportion of teak from the top to the younger and fewer trees on the lower slopes. Of late the effect of grazing and fire have been more visible in the preservation of teak and similar fire-resistant species like Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), Seja (Lagerstroemia parviflora), Amla (Emblica officinalis), etc.
Mixed forests appear on the Vindhyan sandstone which appears in different parts of Sagar tehsil. The quality and density vary on the depth of the soil and the degree of the slope. On the deeper parts of the forest, where the amount of rainfall is higher than other parts of the district, the trees grow up to a height of 60 ft. Some of the chief species are Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), Seja (Lagerstroemia parviflora), Amla (Emblica officinalis), Saj (Terminalia tomentosa), Bel (Aegle marmelos), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna), etc.
Fauna
The old Gazetteer of 1906, gives an account of game animals of the district known to the shikaris of that time. These mostly included mammals and birds. Since then, various reports have been published on the animal surveys of the old Madhya Pradesh. Department of Zoology in Dr. Harisingh Gour University has also taken up the work of recording the number of animal species and their genus present in this district. 37 species of mammals have been reported in the district. In the category of mammals, different orders like Primates, Chiroptera, Carnivora, Rodentia and Ungulate have been found. In the case of Primates, Rhesus or Bengal Monkey and Langur or Hanuman Monkey is found. In the order of Chiroptera, beings like Flying-fox (Pteropus giganteus giganteus), Horseshoe bat (Rhinolopus lepidus), Leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros lankadiva), etc., are found.
Among the Carnivora, the Tiger (Felis tigris) and Panther or Leopard (Felis pardus) are the most common. The tiger is usually found in larger blocks but often migrates for food in smaller blocks, during the winter season. This magnificent beast is usually found in the areas of Abchand ravines, Khanpur, Hanamatpadadi, Patrikota, Ghoghra, Madaiya, etc. The Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena), Civet-cat (Paradoxurus Crossing Gray) and Jackal (Canis indicus kola) are common, but Wolves (Canis pallipes) are rarely seen and Wild dogs (Cuon dukhunensis) are often met with. The Indian Sloth bear (Melursis ursinus) is usually confined to rocky country and dense forests. A few animals that are found here from the order of Rodentia are Squirrel (Funambuslus pennanti), Rat (Rattus rattus rufescens), Hare (Lepus reficaudatus), etc. All of these are common animals that are found very easily. In the case of the order Ungulate, animals such as Nilgai or Blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Antelope or Blackbuck (Tetracerus quadricornts), spotted Deer (Axis axis axis), etc., are found in this district. Moss King has described 153 species of birds as permanent residents of this district, in his book ‘The Resident Birds of the Saugor and Damoh Districts’, 1912. Some of these birds are crows, sparrows, woodpeckers, munia, myna, cuckoo, etc. As seen above in the whole chapter, it can be seen that the city of Sagar is made up of all the river drainage. Banjara Lake has become the reason for people to settle there and start a settlement. Other than this the weather of the city and its nearby area all have a moderate climate and a moderate amount of rainfall, except for areas that have forests in them. The type of forests depends on the type of soil that the Sagar district as a whole and Sagar Tehsil has. These soils not only have different types of forests but the weather and climate have also helped in determining the kind of minerals that are found in different regions of the Sagar district. These forest areas house a lot of flora and fauna. Many of the flora and fauna have not been mentioned here.
The important question is why do we need to know the geographical condition of the Sagar district and the rock art sites? The answer is plain and simple. By knowing the geographical condition of the area are we able to determine the condition of the prehistoric humans and their reason to live in these caves and draw the paintings? An idea can be deducted regarding their subject of rock paintings. While studying the geological conditions of the district, and understanding can be reached regarding, when the rock shelters came into existence, to date the period, from when humans started living here.
ROCK SHELTERS
“The cave you fear to enter holds the greatest treasure you seek.” -Joseph Campbell
Nature of Indian Rock Art
In the beginning, there were a lot of misgivings regarding the nature, antiquity, authorship, motive, etc., of rock art. But gradually the picture started getting clearer when archaeologists started taking an interest in the study of rock art. Rock art studies in India is not only restricted to the Paleolithic period, it extends even beyond it. In the Indian subcontinent, the caves and rock shelters were inhabited and used by people over many periods, throughout which the rock walls were used as a convenient canvas to visually express and transmit their idea, ethos, aspirations, and messages. In India, the rock art sites of prehistoric and early preliterate societies sometimes coexist with the extensively painted caves that were cut into the rock by Buddhist monks during the historic past. Therefore, the study of rock art, at least in the Indian subcontinent, has a wider historical background, scope, and meaning. Rock art has been found widely in India from Kashmir in the furthest north, to the southern peninsular region spreading over Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh. In the northern Himalayan region, sites are also common in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. In western bordering areas, selected rock art sites exist in Gujarat. But the maximum concentration is in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh as also in the adjacent areas of Rajasthan in the west.
Khanpur
Khanpur (23º87'15.63"N 78º64'51.37"E) is a village situated 11km away from the Sagar city in the northwest direction. Here rock art is found in numerous rock shelters. These shelters are found in the Vindhyan sandstone formation, with slight evidence of the presence of the Deccan Trap. The elevation of these hills is 560-600 m.
In the previous works, we find a description of rock art sites in Phase 1 (red tag), which lies near the temple complex. There is another phase present regarding the rock shelters, which is present in the adjacent hillock of Phase 1. Not much information regarding the rock art sites of Phase 2 (purple tag) has been found. In this dissertation, information regarding the Phase 2 rock art sites has also been given. In Phase 1 rock art site, only two shelters have been found. In the Phase 2 rock shelters, twelve shelters have been found. However, in Phase 2 rock shelters, no rock art is available from Shelters 1-4. In shelters 5-12, rock artwork has been found. The shelter complex from 6-12 is also known as Nahar Khoi.
| Art Present | Art not Present | Total |
Phase 1 | 2 | - | 2 |
Phase 2 | 8 | 4 | 12 |
Grand Total | | | 14 |
Table 3.1 Number of Rock shelters in Khanpur
As mentioned before, S. K. Bajpai and S. K. Pandey have done work in the rock art sites of the Sagar district. Both of them have also done work in the sites of Khanpur and Naryauli, respectively. Although both have still mentioned the other rock art sites of Sagar district too. The rock shelters of Khanpur in Phase 1 are-
S. K. Bajpai, in his book, has mentioned the color white in the paintings of this rock shelter. But in a recent survey, the white color paintings are not visible anymore. This could only be when lime patination has taken place. Therefore, white-colored paintings are not mentioned in the context of these rock shelters. At the top of Fig 3.2, on the roof, we find paintings in red ochre color, where two men, a horse rider, a huge man with a bow and an arrow, and a man with a sword and a shield, can be seen. On the right side of the picture, a man in red ochre color can be seen, sitting on the horse and holding a sword with one hand and holding the bridle of the horse with another hand. In front of him, a slightly faded figure of a man can be seen. Below, a tiger, with its tail erect is shown. Just below the tiger, another scene is visible, where the animal is with two men. The inner body of the animal is filled with color. These are paintings drawn in the historical period.
This is a closeup of shelter 1 with different animals and activities of humans. Here, it is visible that the animal in the lowest part of the picture is a bull, with two men. It is a cattle rearing scene.
In this rock shelter, the human figures are easily visible. They are either stick-shaped forms or anatomically developed forms. The figures are drawn in ochre, dark tan, and yellow colors. In this rock shelter, the painting period ranges from Mesolithic to Chalcolithic.
The anatomically developed human forms are of the Chalcolithic period. In Fig 3.5, they are shown in different postures doing different activities.
In Fig 3.7, stick-shaped figures with wavy lines, of the Mesolithic period doing different forms of activities are visible. Most of them are running in one direction. Chalcolithic painting is also visible here, where anatomically developed forms are present.
In Fig 3.8, a square-shaped tiger is shown in dark tan color. Its body has wavy, triangular, dark tan-colored lines. This figure belongs to the late phase of the Mesolithic period.
The rock shelters of Phase 2 have 12 shelters in them. As mentioned before, rock shelters 1-4 do not have any form of rock art in them. Therefore, they will not be discussed here. The rock shelters of 5-12 will be discussed here, mentioned in Table 3.1. The rock shelters here have been numbered from east to west, accordingly. They are
In the painting of this rock shelter, a stick-shaped human can be seen. Since most of the painting has chipped out, therefore, anything in the painting is difficult to be seen, due to which the dating of the painting is not possible.
In rock shelter 6, five red ochre-colored deer can be seen. The inner body of the deer is filled with clear and features are fleshy and clear. There is another deer, near the color-filled deer, whose only outline has been drawn. This kind of painting has been found in the Chalcolithic period.
It is a faded painting of the Chalcolithic period. Although the figures are not visible clearly, the painting technique and the color used to give us a general understanding of the period.
In the above shelter, there are two scenes visible, adjacent to each other. From the left side, cattle rearing is seen and on the right side, a hunting scene is visible, which has become a little faded. In the hunting scene, the man is shown holding a sword. This gives us proof that it is of the Historical period.
In here, three stick-shaped figures are shown running, with a harpoon in their hand. From the color used and the style, it can be concluded that the paintings belong to the Chalcolithic period.
In this Fig 3.18, paintings of Chalcolithic is visible, through superimposition. The first Chalcolithic paintings are done in dark red ochre colour and the later Chalcolithic painting is done in red ochre. The first Chalcolithic paintings show stick-shaped human figures in front of the cattle rearing head. One man looks like in a jumping position, with his knees folded. Another human is shown in a falling stance. The superimposed red ochre-coloured squareshaped animal has been drawn later on. The animal is filled with designs in the inner part. Although it is a superimposed painting, the period is the same. All the paintings are of the Early Chalcolithic period.
In this Fig 3.20, three deer is present, with a standing human at the top, in red ochre colour. The deer are filled with colours. Even the human is not stick-shaped, rather nearly an anatomically developed human. Along with it, yellow patination is visible in the painting. The painting is of the Chalcolithic period.
In shelter 7 of Khanpur, varied scenes can be seen. These scenes show different activities of humans, animals and their engagement with each other. The paintings are of the Mesolithic to early Historic period.
This is an unfinished painting in red ochre color. From the left corner, three fleshy humans can be seen holding each other and running around. They must have been laying around. Just below them, two stick-shaped humans are seen in lateral view. One of them is larger in height than the other. It may be a man and a woman or a father or mother talking to their child. There are many interpretations of this scene. The rock art area is covered with algae, resulting in its damage. This is an early Historic period painting. There are even scenes of humans in war. The algae-covered area shows the stick-shaped humans with weapons and one human is also shown with a wounded leg. It looks as if two groups of people are in a war with each other
Fig 3.24, shows different activities of different periods. The rock art is of the Mesolithic to Chalcolithic period. To understand the different periods of the painting, the different colors and their periods need to be known. Here, when the dark red ochre color is seen, then it means that it is of the Mesolithic period. When a light red ochre color is seen, then it is of the Chalcolithic period. In this rock shelter, superimposition can be seen on different parts. The description of the painting is done from top to bottom and from left to right. At the top left corner, a deer is seen. The neck of the deer is filled with color, whereas, the body of the deer is left empty. The hind legs of the deer are thick, whereas, the front legs are thin. This painting is of the Mesolithic period. Right below its leg, a deer group is seen, of the Mesolithic period. In it even a ‘Bara Singha’ is present. In light red ochre color, a hunting scene is superimposed. In it, a deer, whose inside is filled with line designs is shown being hunted by a group of fleshy-looking human figures, who have surrounded the deer. The figures all have weapons in their hands, supposedly a spear. This is a Chalcolithic period rock art. Just below the above scene, a Mesolithic period painting is visible, where, a group of stick-shaped human figures has surrounded a deer, whose inside is filled with wavy designs. Another hunting group scene of the same period is present there, just below this scene. It has faded a lot. Below the above scene, a faded line of stick-shaped shaped human figures is visible. They look like men who are ready for war. It is a painting of the Early Historic period. Below this painting, another animal is visible, with designs on its inside. From this view, it looks like a painting of the Mesolithic period. On the right side of Fig 3.24, at the top, two filled figures are visible. One is taller than the other. The taller one’s hands are open, in the form of showing fingers. The smaller figure has something in its hand, which seems like it's carrying something on its shoulder. This is a mother-daughter duo. It can be said from the style of clothing. At the side of this rock art, a group of fleshy humans can be seen hunting a deer, with a long neck, wavy designs, and a stick-shaped body. Right below it a monkey is visible, in somersault position. The body of the monkey is filled with a wavy design. All the paintings are of the Mesolithic period.
Below the whole above scene, an outline of a bull is visible, which has superimpositions on it. The face of the cow has the presence of slight yellow color patination. Inside it a small outline of another animal is visible. It may be showing the pregnant cow. Just beside it, another long-necked animal is drawn, with its neck being a superimposition above the monkey figure. This is a goat. These are rock art of the Mesolithic period. On the lower part of the superimposed bull outline, a group of stick-shaped human figures is visible. These humans look as if they enjoying themselves, by dancing around in a circle. This painting looks like that of the Mesolithic period. This scene has superimposed a bull with triangular designs on the inside of it and yellow color is used to fill it. The bull figure rock art is of the Early Mesolithic period. Just below this whole scene, another figure can be seen. This figure will be discussed further.
The scene in Fig 3.28, shows fleshy humans, ready for war. These humans have bows and arrows as their weapons. In the center, a patination is visible. Another, faded group of fleshy humans are visible coming towards them with their weapons. This is rock art from the Historic period. This scene is a superimposition of a Mesolithic period scene. In the area of patination, the lower layer has become visible. And the Historic period painting has fallen off.
In the panel, at the bottom, a bull is visible that has a design on its inside. Far-left to it is an animal figure. It seems that this shows a panel with a group of animals. Some of them have faded away. This is rock art of the Mesolithic period.
In Fig 3.35, a stick-shaped human is visible, in dark red ochre. It is a very naturalistic painting. The figure is wearing a mask and has something on its shoulder. The knees are folded, which denotes that the figure is walking somewhere. Patination has destroyed the remaining part of the painting. The figure is in S-shape. This is a Mesolithic period rock art.
The rock shelter 8 of Khanpur is divided into two parts. They are1. Rock shelter 8A 2. Rock shelter 8B
The paintings are faded, but from the brush strokes used to make the painting, it is clear the paintings are of the Neolithic period.
Only a U-shaped is visible in the whole painting. Besides the U-shape, a faded white color painting is also visible. It is a human figure. Lime patination has taken place. Rock art has been made in the Neolithic period.
Some work is present, but due to patination, the painting is not clear. Therefore, the period of this painting is not known.
Three humans, with masks, in-box shapes are visible with the inside being empty. They are drawn in loose artistic style. The paintings are of the Early Historic period.
It is a Neolithic painting made of thick brush with a loose artistic view. The presence of white lime patination can be seen.
In Fig 3.45, two animals are present, one of which is a ‘Neel Gai’ with designs inside it. This is a Chalcolithic period rock art. Patination is visible around the painting.
In Fig 3.46, at the left side, a vertical bull is shown, of the Chalcolithic period. At the right side of it, under the yellow patination, a skeleton-like body is visible. On the yellow patinated area, to the right, an outlined sheep is visible with some other animals that have faded away due to patination. Below the sheep, an animal with line designs inside is visible. The sheep and this latter animal, both are of the Chalcolithic period. Another painting has been drawn below them, in white color. A bull has been drawn in white color with wavy designs on the inside. This is a painting of the Late Mesolithic period. Patches of red are visible, here and there. Patination has destroyed the whole painting.
Fig 3.48, shows the cattle rearing scene. In it, a human is shown standing with a stick in his hand, and cows and bulls are around him. The huge figure in front of the man is not able to be distinguished. This is a Neolithic period painting
A lateritic impression is seen on the place where the painting is. A man is seen standing with a bow and an arrow. The painting is of the transitional period between the NeolithicChalcolithic.
It is a war scene between two figures. Another figure with a bow and arrow can be seen. It has a loose artistic view and is of the Historical period.
The scene shows a human on the left side and many cattle on the right side. The man seems to take care of the cattle. This is a scene of cattle rearing, which has become faded due to patination. It is of the Historical period.
Fig 3.55, shows a tiger attacking a deer. The body of the tiger is filled with designs of stripes and even the nails of the tiger are prominent. The nails look like the talons of an eagle. The painting is of the Historical period.
The painting shows a tiger at the center, whose body is filled with wavy line designs, and four deer around him. The painting looks as if the tiger is looking around in the herd, to hunt a deer of its choice. This is a Historical period painting.
The painting is of a horse rider with a spear in his hand, while the other hand holds the horse bridle. It seems as if the horse rider is going for a war. The legs of the horse look like, that of a tiger and the body is filled with colour. This painting is of the Historical period.
In the above picture, three turtles and some other animals have been depicted. One of the turtles is shown with its four limbs and a tail and the inside has a coloured boundary, rest empty. There are some other animals also near the turtles, but those animals could not be deciphered. The paintings are of the Historical period.
Fig 3.70, shows the killing scene of a human by another in red ochre colour. It looks as if the killer has a sword in his hand. Therefore, it can be said that the other person, probably died due to death in war. This painting is from the Historical period.
Above is a depiction of a horse rider in red ochre, with a bow and an arrow in his hand. The horse rider is shown turning back and is on the way to shoot someone, at the back. This is a Historical period painting.
A faded white figure is visible here. The painting faded away due to years of patination.
In Fig 3.72, a horse rider can be seen surrounded by his enemies. The enemies all have a sword as their weapons. One also has a weapon that looks like a sickle. Another interpretation can also be that the horse rider is the leader and the men with weapons are his warriors, that are cheering for him. This is a Historical period rock art
In the above painting, geometrical figure-shaped humans can be seen, dancing around while playing dholak. This kind of rock art can be dated to the Late Historical period.
| Scenes | Superimposition | Animals | Humans | Motifs |
Phase 1 | | | | | |
Shelter 1 | 4 | | 5 | 7 | |
Shelter 2 | 5 | | 4 | 15 | |
Phase 2 | | | | | |
Shelter 5 | 1 | | | 1 | |
Shelter 6 | 4 | | 10 | 5 | |
Shelter 7 | 10 | 7 | 11 | 32 | |
Shelter 8A | 6 | 1 | 3 | 3 | |
Shelter 8B | 4 | | 4 | | |
Shelter 9 | 2 | | 3 | 2 | |
Shelter 10 | 13 | | 13 | 24 | |
Shelter 11 | 4 | | 10 | 12 | 1 |
Shelter 12 | 3 | | 4 | 9 | |
Table 3.2 Characteristics of the Rock shelters of Khanpur
There were different scenes on the rock shelters. These rock art sites have different forms of animals. Some of them are tigers, horses, bulls, cows, Neel gai, Bara Singha, deer, monkeys, etc. most of these animals were shown with humans in different activities. For theoretical studies the taxonomical procedure is essential. It relies upon the morphological identifications which are being supplemented with cognitive perceptions, visual abstractions, and cultural encodings. The taxonomy achieved so far differs from person to person. Here the classification has been based on S. K. Pandey’s book ‘Indian Rock Art’, 1993. They are
1. Colour
2. Styles
3. Superimpositions
4. Subject matter
The taxonomy thus achieved is as follows
Naturalistic | Upper Paleolithic |
Stylized | Mesolithic I |
Decorative/ Schematic | Mesolithic II |
Conventionalized | Neolithic-Chalcolithic |
Eclectic | Historical |
The site of Khanpur does not have the period of Upper Paleolithic in rock art site. Therefore, the study here has started from the period of the Mesolithic period. The biggest evidence regarding this period is the microliths.
Table 3.3, shows the different periods of rock art present in the site of Khanpur. After looking at the table it can be concluded that the greatest number of paintings are found in the Historical period. Although even the Historical period can be divided further, depending on the Early and Late Historical period paintings and the rulers that ruled there. After the Historical period, the highest frequency of paintings is found in the Chalcolithic period. After that, the highest painting frequency is in the Mesolithic period and then in the Neolithic period. Looking at the table, the development of rock art in the different periods, in the site of Khanpur can be seen. The paintings started from the Mesolithic I period and developed themselves in the Mesolithic II period. Even by the Neolithic period, not much development was seen, and further, it can be deduced that during the Neolithic period, all the rock shelters were not inhabited for a long time. In the Chalcolithic period, inhabitants came back again and the result is that paintings are found from this period to the Chalcolithic period. When in the Historical period, people living in the caves, saw those living below and riding horses, elephants, and chariots, they would come back and draw those scenes on the walls of the caves. Resulting in the rock art found in the Historical period.
Naryauli
Naryauli (23º90'64.70"N 78º59'18.70"E) is a village situated 20kms away from Sagar city in the northwest direction. This is a village that lies at the center of two hillocks and has a railway station and substation of its own. Numerous rock shelters with rock art are found here. But in this dissertation, discussion regarding the three famous rock art shelters will take place mainly in one of the shelters. The elevation of the hillocks of the Naryauli is 550-600 m. The western hillock has the ruins of the Naryauli fort at the top of it. Naryauli was first discovered by M. G. Dixit, who was the then Head of the Department of Sagar University. After its discovery, the findings of this site were even published in the ‘IAR 1958-59’. After the works of M. G. Dixit, another archaeologist named Dr. S. K. Pandey has worked in these sites. In the magazine ‘Sandesh’ of June 1962, Madhya Pradesh, he published a detailed report of the site. Later on, in his book ‘Indian Rock Art’ he published the works of Naryauli again. Other than these two, even S. K. Bajpai also recorded his findings in Naryauli rock art and published it in the Commemoration Volume of Shankar Tiwari ‘Rock Art & Archaeology in India’. Even V. S. Wakankar has mentioned the findings of the rock art site in his book ‘Painted Rock Shelters of India’. Other than the rock art shelters, some inscriptions are also found here
In Naryauli, there are three rock shelters mainly. The rock shelters from east to west are -
Siddhababa ki Guffa
Ranipura ki Pahari
Bundelbaba Shelter
Of these rock shelters, the main focus will be done on the rock shelter complex of Siddhababa ki Guffa. This cave complex lies in the eastern part of the hillock facing the railway station. In this rock shelter complex, we will deal with eight rock shelters, of which rock shelter 1 is bare of any rock art. All the other rock shelters have rock art in them. Some are highly patinated. Rock shelter 3 is the main rock shelter, which has a collection of rock arts on them. Rock shelter 7 has rock art, but it has faded away completely.
Shelter | Presence of Rock Art |
1 | Not Present |
2 | Present |
3 | Present |
4 | Present |
5 | Present |
6 | Present |
7 | Present- not visible |
8 | Present |
Table 3.4 Presence of Rock Art
Ranipura ki Pahari is a rock shelter that is devoid of any paintings in the present day. Above the Bundelbaba Shelter, Naryauli fort is present. It is difficult to reach the shelter. Therefore, no pictures of this rock shelter are available and therefore, no description is also given. Below are the rock shelters of the Siddhababa ki Guffa mentioned. They are-
In shelter 2, an outline of a fleshy human figure can be seen. The painting has faded making a lot of the painting difficult to be interpreted. The human is seen wearing something on his head. From the colors used in the painting, rock art is believed to be of the Chalcolithic period.
Rock shelter 3, is also known as the ‘Siddhababa ki Guffa’. It is the main rock art rock shelter. It has the highest number of rock art in the cave complex of this group. Signs of vandalism is visible in the above-given figure.
Here, two horse riders are visibly filled with white color. Note that one of them has a decorated saddle on the horse. This kind of style on the horse was found in the Late Historical period. A superimposition in the form of an outline of the horse is also visible on the first horse rider. It is of the same period, as the other horse riders. When focused on the figure, a slight patinated outline of another human figure is visible near the front legs of the second horse rider. The patinated figure seems to be drawn in the Chalcolithic period. Following that figure, a figure of deer is also visible. It could be a scene of a food gatherer in the jungle. At the bottom of Fig 3.77, a patinated scene of royal procession can be seen. Here two, light red ochre-colored figures with swords in their hands are visible and are walking in the front, while the king is seen as a horse rider with a decorated saddle and an umbrella at the top, with another warrior at the back is visible. The warrior at the back is filled with color too.
In this Fig 3.80, at the center a huge procession is visible. The figures are filled with red ochre colors. At the front, two women figures are visible, carrying something. One of them has a bent sword in their hand. At the back of the procession, a man is shown upside down, while another man withstanding hair and a bowl in his hand are shown, looking like asking for alms. Another man is seen at the back of this man, with a sword in his hand, ready to strike down. A man is shown pulling at the horse, which is resisting his pull, and another is shown trying to calm the horse down as a helper. All these figures look geometrical and even the horse is drawn in a proportionate style, showing the development of rock art. This rock art belongs to the Late Historical period. Below, a woman with the inside filled with design is seen with a stick on her shoulder and wearing something on her head. Note how her ears have something dangling from her ears. The inside of the body is filled with line designs crossing each other and the way the figure is standing. At the end of the stick, something is dangling. It looks as if she is carrying a beehive. She is standing in the Tribhanga mudra. This is an Early Historic period of rock art. On the right side of her, there seem to be numerous birds sitting on the branch. At the bottom of this rock art, a superimposition of the Chalcolithic and Early Historic periods is seen. The paint in white is a superimposition of the one in red ochre color. The white figure looks like that of a bird, possibly a duck. The figure in red seems to be that of a deer, getting attacked by the tiger which is seen just above it, with a long tail. The white paint has become patinated and some paintings even faded away. There seems to be a long line of figures in white at the back of the superimposed painting. The red-colored painting is that of the Chalcolithic period and the one in white seems to be that of the Early Historical period. At the right side of the rock art, there seems to be a group of horse riders and soldiers on foot. This rock art has faded away. It seems to be a painting of the Early Historic painting. The rock art looks that to be a war scene.
In Fig 3.82, a mythical creature in white has been drawn. Patination is visible, which changed the color into yellow. The being has the head of the elephant and the body of the lion. Its tail is raised high. This mythical being is called ‘Gajsimha’ or ‘Gajvyala’. These creatures started to be represented from the 8th -9th century CE. Just beside it in a red ochre color, a faded painting of a being has been drawn. It is beyond recognizable.
The above figure shows an outline of an animal that looks like a goat. The rock art is of the Early Historic period
Fig 3.87 shows, an outline of a lone human figure with a sword and a shield in his hand. One hand is holding a sword in his hand, looking as if he is ready to strike, while the other hand is protecting oneself with a shield. After looking at the rock,
In above Fig 3.89, it seems that there are numerous peacocks here with their tails open and fanning the feathers. There seem to be at least three peacocks, here. These beings started to be represented in rock art in the Historical period.
it looks to be that of the Early Historic period.
In Fig 3.91, a patinated and faded painting is visible, on the left of the crack. where a man is seen bent forward, who is looking tired, slightly in the state of going unconscious. On the right of the crack, beside the man, another human figure is visible. Both of the paintings are of the same period, i.e., the Historical period.
In rock shelter 5, not much rock art has been found. Here, faded rock art is found on the walls of the cave, in front of the pottery sherd. The painting shows a faded chariot pulled by a horse and an elephant in the front. This painting is from the Historic period. A rich microlithic deposit has been found in this cave and even pottery sherds, as shown above. It looks like an impression of reeds on the sherd.
In Fig 3.94, two men are seen fighting each other. One man is seen raising his arms to strike the other man with the sword. The other man is seen raising his hand to protect himself, but that is the area that had faded away the most. Therefore it is not known how he is protecting himself. The painting is drawn in red ochre color and is filled. It is a Historic period of rock art.
In Fig 3.95, a agreen-colored deer is visible, with the body filled with wavy designs. It is one of its kind here, on this rock art site. It is an Early Mesolithic period rock art.
In Fig 3.96, the man is shown hunting the leopard with a bow and an arrow. The painting was drawn in white, but due to patination, its color has turned. The white-colored figures in the background, ar the other people that are helping him hunt the beast, and on the left of the man, a monkey is seen seeing the scene of the hunt.
In this shelter, an outline of a fleshy man is drawn in white colour in a walking stance, with a stick in his hand. It represents a loose artistic view. The rock art is of the Early Historic period.
There are various animals found in the site of Naryauli. According to this dissertation, the animals that have been found are tigers, deer, horses, elephants, peacocks, other birds and a mythical creature. The most important aspect is the development of the horse painting that has been found. The most different aspect of these shelters is that, that even an umbrella was found here.
The paintings of Naryauli is mainly of the Historical period. There are very few paintings that are of any other period. Table 3.6 shows that the Historical period rock art is found the most. It also proves that in the Historic period, people migrated here and stayed for the longest of time. During those days, the climate and topography of this area were still difficult to be lived, that is why people preferred to live on the hills to survive the climate conditions.
The tables that have been made in this chapter, were made by referring to Fig 3.79. Wakankar was the pioneer of rock art. His works have made people understand rock art.
CONCLUSION
“Ads are the cave art of the twentieth century.” -Marshall McLuhan
From prehistoric times, since man could understand art, painting became one of their aspects of life. There have been many theories, as to why rock art painting had started. As an author of this dissertation, I believe that these paintings were a way of expressing themselves when words did not even exist. Even in present times, when words cannot express any emotions, humans tend to express them with the use of art. During that time their day-to-day life, their habits, their bond with each other, etc., are also explained in the form of rock art. Prehistoric men drew them and as time passed, people forgot about them. In different periods, people came to the same sites and settled there for some time. During these periods, they also expressed themselves in the form of rock. Many drew their paintings on top of older ones. They all migrated away again and then the site was again forgotten. Until they were discovered by others in modern times. In modern days, rock art study has become a topic of interest. Although it took a lot of time for the rock art studies to come to light, still, rock art became a fascinating topic for people. After the finding of rock art, researchers became excited to know more about the lives of the people of that time. While doing so many other information from the rock art sites became available, which helped us to build a picture of the biological, political, social, and cultural lives of the people of the ancient past. In this dissertation, I wanted to document the rock art of the sites of Khanpur and Naryauli and even show the present-day condition of these sites, from that of what other scholars and researchers have written about. I also wanted to create a typological context of rock art, based on its frequency of availability in different shelters and its periods. As discussed in the previous chapter, the rock art of Khanpur and Naryauli (according to the data represented) have many similarities as well as differences. The frequency of the availability of the rock art in a rock shelter of Khanpur is more than that of Naryauli. But in the case of Naryauli, the type of animals found here are more than that of Khanpur. In Naryauli even mythical beings are found. Whereas, in Khanpur no mythical being is found. The number of periods represented in the rock art site of Khanpur is more than that of Naryauli. Although Naryauli has less frequency of empty rock shelters the condition of the site is far worse than that of Khanpur. Paintings have also helped us to understand the presence of animals in these areas, in different periods. In the site of Khanpur, we find a killing scene, war scene, pregnant animal scene, people enjoying their life, a mother-daughter duo scene, etc. All these scenes help us in understanding the kind of lives that these people were living in different periods. The most important of these paintings is the development of the weapons. At first, people used bows and arrows, harpoons and spears for hunting and fighting. Later on, they started using even swords for fighting. The development of the sword is also seen here. Straight swords were used before the time when Alexander came to India, but the use of bent swords started after Alexander came to India. So straight swords can be attributed to the period before Alexander and bent swords can be attributed to the time of Alexander and after him. The site of Khanpur has the number of rock art shelters and they are very well preserved. These hillocks are steep and it is difficult for people to reach these sites as they are covered with huge trees, shrubs, and dangerous animals. Therefore, it is protected from vandalism. Local people even believe that these rock arts are the results of witchcraft done here and the red ochre color is made from the blood of children that were sacrificed by the witch living there. This local folklore has in a way protected the site. But today this site is in danger of getting destroyed by the building of the dam, which will take place in a few years. The site of Naryauli may not have a continuation of periods in all the sites, but it also has a rich collection of rock art in shelter 3, wherein one place superimposition of two periods is found. One of them being the Chalcolithic and the other being the Historical period. In another shelter, even a Mesolithic painting is found. This proves that people of these periods stayed in these caves for some time before they migrated away. There is however no presence of Neolithic culture here. Rich microlithic deposit is found in rock shelter 5, which leads us to the fact that Mesolithic people had stayed for some time. It is interesting to see, the development of the artwork done on horses. In the earlier Historical period, the horse had no form of decoration and no saddle was used on them to ride them. By the middle part of the Historical period, there were decorations around it and even a saddle was used on it. There was a development of even the saddles on the horses. In the earlier period the saddle decoration was not much, but to only use it to comfortably ride the horse, but in the later periods there was a high amount of decoration around the saddle. The importance of a saddle to show one’s status is also shown here. The site of Naryauli is in bad condition. Human vandalism is seen clearly. In the shelter complex of Siddhababa ki Guffa, human intervention can be seen clearly. Some of the caves have been painted white by the local people and some local religious figures (baba). Due to this, much rock art has already vanished. Even natural forces have taken a toll on them. From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the site of Khanpur and Naryauli had some differences as well as some similarities. Their differences were based on the periods of rock art that are available here and the frequency, in which they were available in each shelter. These sites both have their importance with the type of scenes that are shown here. The similarities of these sites are based on their geological condition, their proximity from each other, and the city of Sagar. The biggest similarity is the continuous degradation of site preservation and its surrounding areas. Without any future conservation work on these sites, the rock art of these sites will be lost forever.
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xi. Prymak, J. (2007). Aligned boulders at Whiteshell Park, Manitoba. Wikipedia, Manitoba, Canada. Retrieved October 23, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroform#/media/File:Petroform_at_Whiteshell_ Park,_Manitoba.JPG
xii. Québec, M. d., A. s., & U. d. (n.d.). Discover Rock Art. (A. LEBRETON, Editor, & Musée de la civilisation à Québec) Retrieved October 12, 2021, from Images On Stone: https://imagesdanslapierre.mcq.org/en/discover/
xiii. Robinson, P. (Ed.). (n.d.). Hand Paintings. Retrieved October 22, 2021, from Bradshaw Foundation: https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/hands/index.php
xiv. Sagar District at a Glance. (2013). Retrieved October 23, 2021, from Central Ground Water Board (CGWB): http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/MP/SAGAR.pdf
xv. Urmi Gosh Biswas. (n.d.). Pre and Protohistoric Cultures of India. Retrieved July 28, 2021, from e-PGPathshala: https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=829
xvi. Valenzuela, D., & Clarkson, P. B. (2014). Geoglyphs. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_1625
xvii. Violatti, C. (n.d.). The Meaning of European Upper Paleolithic Rock Art. Retrieved July 26, 2021, from World History Encyclopedia: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/787/the-meaning-of-european-upperpaleolithic-rock-art/
xviii. Yamazaki , D., D., I., R., T., R., Y., F., O., C., N. J., . . . P. D., B. (n.d.). Sagar Topographic map, Elevation, Relief. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from Topographic-Map: https://en-in.topographic-map.com/maps/vmux/Sagar/
xix. Yu, P. L. (2016, April). Ethnographic and Archaeological Reference Knowledge for Cupule/Pit and Groove Boulders. (M. Plew, Ed.) Retrieved October 20, 2021, from ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301542884_Ethnographic_and_Arch aeological_Reference_Knowledge_for_CupulePit_and_Groove_Boulders
Monograph
i. Chakraverty, S. (2003). Rock Art Studies in India: A Historical Perspective (Vol. Monograph Series No.: XXXVIII). Kolkata, India: The Asiatic Society. Retrieved October 26, 2021
Journals
i. Ghosh, A. (Ed.). (1959). Rock-Paintings and Microliths in District Sagar. Indian Archaeology 1958-59 -A Review(1958-59), 72. Retrieved August 13, 2021, from https://asi.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Indian-Archaeology-1958-59-AReview.pdf
ii. Pandey, S. K. (1962, June). Sandesh. Madhya Bharati, Vol. IV.
Software
i. Adobe Illustrator CS2. (2005, April 27). (12, 12.0.1). Adobe Inc. Retrieved October 2021
ii. Adobe Photoshop CC. (2019). (20.0.5). Adobe Inc. Retrieved October 2021
iii. Grammarly. (2009). Grammarly for MS Office. USA. Retrieved 2021, from https://www.grammarly.com/office-addin
iv. The Orange Box. (2021, March 30). 3D Map Generator - 3D MapperPhotoshop Plug-in. (ver. 1). Retrieved 2021, from https://www.3d-mapgenerator.com/
BIBLIOGRAPHY
i. Brijesh Rawat, J. S. (2013). Madhya Pradesh Ki Shailchitra Kala (First ed.). New Delhi: Research India Press.
ii. Champion, H. G. (1936). Preliminary Survey of Forest Type of India and Burma.
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v. Pathak, M. D., & Clottes, J. (2013). Handprints in the Rock Art and Tribal Art of Central India. Retrieved October 22, 2021, from Leakey Foundation: https://leakeyfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Handprints-2013- Meenakshi-Dubey-Pathak-and-Jean-Clottes-copy.pdf
vi. Smith, V. A. (1984). Pygmy Flints. In R. C. Temple, Indian Antiquary (Vol. 35, p. 185). Swati Publications.
vii. Stephanie Pappas. (2021, June 16). Google Earth reveals the world's largest geoglyph. (J. Bryner, Editor) Retrieved October 2021, 2021, from LIVE SCIENCE: https://www.livescience.com/largest-geoglyphs-discoveredindia.html
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